This html version of the pdf file http

This is a html version of the pdf file located here:
http://nature.org/wherewework/northamerica/states/mississippi/files/conserving_mississippi_s_freshwater_biodiversity.pdf.
The html version below may have some images missing.

Page 1

M E N U

H O M E
L I N K S

Conserving Mississippi’s Freshwater Biodiversity

Matthew B. Hicks

The Nature Conservancy, Mississippi Chapter

6400 Lakeover Road, Suite C, Jackson, Mississippi 39213.

Abstract

The southeastern United States harbors a rich diversity of freshwater species and ecosystems. In

particular, Mississippi contains a spectacular diversity of aquatic plants and animals throughout its

many watersheds, from coastal black water systems to lower Appalachian Tennessee River systems.

Certain incompatible human uses of Mississippi's natural resources pose potential threats to this

natural heritage, and many entities, including non-profit organizations, governmental agencies, local

community groups and private sector companies are increasing their efforts to protect water quality,

quantity and biodiversity within the State. Limited resources, however, require their efforts be

carefully planned and focused to increase the probability of successful conservation and thus have

a positive impact on aquatic natural resources. The Nature Conservancy (TNC) has been active in

biological conservation of Mississippi’s natural resources for many decades. In recent years, the

Mississippi (MS) Chapter of TNC has focused resources and efforts on protecting and restoring the

biodiversity of Mississippi’s freshwater ecosystems. Through a process called Conservation by

Design, freshwater conservation areas of biodiversity significance have been identified and

prioritized and the development of plans to conserve and or protect these areas is underway. The

next steps for the MS chapter of TNC will be to implement these conservation plans, measure the

success of our conservation efforts and continue to revise the conservation plans as data and

information become available. A major factor in the success of our conservation efforts will rely

upon how well the community is engaged in the process, partnering with local, state and federal

government agencies, using scientific data as the foundation of the process and obtaining adequate

funding for the planning and implementation of the conservation strategies.

Key Words

freshwater conservation, freshwater biodiversity, conservation planning

Introduction

The Nature Conservancy (TNC) is a non-profit organization whose mission is to preserve the

plants, animals and natural communities that represent the diversity of life on Earth by protecting

the lands and waters they need to survive. The conservation goal of TNC is the long-term

survival of all representative types of viable native biological species and communities. The

Mississippi Chapter of the Nature Conservancy was established in 1989, however the Nature

Conservancy has been actively engaged in conservation in Mississippi since the 1970’s, mainly

through land acquisition. The Nature Conservancy also helped to establish the Mississippi

Natural Heritage Program in 1976, which identifies the state's most significant natural areas

through a comprehensive inventory of rare plant and animal species, exemplary natural

communities, special geological features, and significant natural areas.

Page 2

The importance of preserving biodiversity has been documented extensively (Wilson 1992,

Norton 1988, McNeely et al. 1990, Ehrlich and Ehrlich 1981, Myers 1992 and Plotkin 1988) and

includes major benefits such as: maintaining ecosystem integrity, water recycling and

purification, aiding plant pollination, generating and maintaining productive soils, production of

foods and medicines, providing biological pest control, offering recreation, assisting in the

bioremediation of chemical pollutants and advancing biotechnology. Annual U.S. economic

benefits of biodiversity are estimated at 300 billion dollars (Pimental et al. 1997). This does not

take into account the many benefits that have not yet been discovered.

Historically, much of TNC’s focus has been on the conservation and protection of terrestrial

biodiversity. In recent years, however, TNC has committed to focusing resources and efforts to

the preservation and conservation of aquatic ecosystems, both freshwater and marine.

Freshwater biodiversity in the United States is known to be rich and diverse and a large portion

of the world’s freshwater species occur in the U.S. (Master et al. 1998) (Table 1). Further, the

southeastern United States is remarkably rich in aquatic species (Table 2).

Table 1. Global Significance of U.S. Freshwater Species

Taxonomic Group

Percentage of Known Species Worldwide Found in U.S.

Fishes

Crayfishes

Freshwater Mussels

Freshwater Snails

Stoneflies

Mayflies

Caddisflies

Dragonflies and Damselflies

Table 2. Significance of Southeastern U.S. Freshwater Species

Taxonomic Group

Percentage of U.S. Species

Found in Southeast

Percentage of North American

Species Found in Southeast

Fishes

Crayfishes

Freshwater Mussels

Freshwater Snails

Stoneflies

Mayflies

Caddisflies

Dragonflies and Damselflies

Page 3

It has the richest fish diversity (686 species) and highest number of endemic fishes in North

America north of Mexico (Warren et. al. 2000). Ninety-one percent (269 of 297) of all mussels

in the United States occur in the southeast (Neves et. al. 1997). There are 313 species of

freshwater snails in this region, 61% of the U.S. total. Estimates show that freshwater

crustaceans, including both cave and surface dwellers, are the most diverse in the U.S. (Hobbs

1992).

This diverse assemblage of species, occurring in freshwater ecosystems of the southeastern U.S.

is highly imperiled. Almost 50% of the most imperiled freshwater regions in the U. S. occur in

the southeast (Master et. al. 1998). Sixty percent of mussels and 28% of fishes are in jeopardy.

In the southeast, the aquatic fauna has experienced one of the highest rates of extinction in the

continental U.S. (Warren et. al. 2000). This is especially true for the freshwater snails and

mussels, with 38 and 36 species known to be extinct.

There are many stresses and sources of stress, together called “threats”, affecting aquatic

communities and species in the southeast. In most freshwater ecosystems, there are several

stresses acting on the community simultaneously, resulting in degradation of the ecological

integrity and ultimately the extinction of species. Of the many stresses that exist, TNC has

identified three major stresses:

¬ In-stream habitat and hydrologic alteration

¬ Water quality pollutants (mainly sedimentation, organic enrichment and nutrification)

¬ Predation and competition from invasive species

In light of these circumstances, the MS Chapter of TNC has developed and initiated a freshwater

conservation program focused on meeting the mission and conservation goal of TNC.

The Nature Conservancy’s Conservation Approach

In order to meet its ambitious mission, TNC has developed a strategic, science-based planning

process, called Conservation by Design (CBD), which helps identify the highest-priority places

that, if conserved, promise to ensure biodiversity over the long term. In other words, CBD

provides a framework for achieving meaningful, lasting conservation results. The MS Chapter f

TNC utilizes the process of CBD in its conservation efforts, including freshwater conservation.

Conservation by Design involves four main steps (Figure 1):

Page 4

Figure 1. Conservation by Design

¬ Step 1. Identify and Prioritize Conservation Areas

¬ Step 2. Develop a Conservation Area Plan for each Conservation Area

¬ Step 3. Implement the Conservation Area Plan

¬ Step 4. Perform Measures of Success to evaluate the progress of implementation

Conservation Areas

TNC

Data

Other

Data

Heritage

Data

Conservation Area Plan

Targets

Threats

Strategies

Measures of Success

Strategy

Implementation

Measure

Success

Page 5

Step 1. Identify and Prioritize Conservation Areas

The first step in CBD involves the identification and prioritization of areas of biodiversity

significance. Areas of biodiversity significance are those that if protected or restored the mission

and conservation goals of TNC will be met. Specifically, these biodiversity significant areas

contain rare, endemic or imperiled species, represent a wide range of natural and unique

biological communities, and/or are good examples of ecologically significant ecosystems.

The identification process involves gathering data and information, identifying potential

conservation target species, communities and systems, assessing the viability of the targets, and

developing portfolios of conservation areas using these data. Sources of data and information for

identifying portfolio conservation areas include TNC Ecoregional Planning Process, Natural

Heritage Programs, TNC’s Freshwater Initiative Program, government agencies, remote sensing

data warehouses, and regional expert workshops.

The prioritization process involves consideration of several priority factors, scoring these factors

for each portfolio area and ranking the areas according to their scores. The factors used to

prioritize portfolio areas are:

¬ Conservation value

¬ Viability of targets

¬ Severity and scope of threats

¬ Feasibility of implementation of strategies

The Mississippi Chapter of TNC has completed the identification of freshwater conservation

areas to be included in the MS Chapter’s portfolio of all conservation areas, both terrestrial and

aquatic (Table 3, Figure 2). In addition, these sites have been prioritized and the highest priority

areas for immediate focus are shown in Figure 3. It is important to note that the list of portfolio

sites is iterative and new sites may be added, current sites may be dropped and/or the priority of

sites may change as new data and information become available.

Step 2. Develop a Conservation Area Plan for each High Priority Conservation Area

Once conservation areas have been identified and prioritized, a plan for how to conserve or

protect the highest priority areas is developed. This plan is called a Conservation Area Plan

(CAP). The CAP is developed in partnership with other technical experts with knowledge of the

conservation area. The utilization of other experts in the development of the CAP is critical to

developing a sound and meaningful plan. The first step in developing a CAP for areas of high

priority is to gather and compile existing information and data specific to the area. Much of

these data will have been gathered during the identification of conservation areas, however, this

process will involve a much more comprehensive and detailed data search. Data to be gathered

include but are not limited to physical, chemical, biological, remotely sensed, location of point

and non-point sources of pollution, land use characteristics, and landowner information.

Page 6

Table 3. Freshwater Conservation Areas Identified for Mississippi

Conservation Area Name

Conservation Program Priority

Amite River

Central Mississippi

High

Bayou Pierre

Central Mississippi

High

Rodney Lake

Central Mississippi

High

Strong River

Central Mississippi

High

St. Catherine Creek

Central Mississippi

Medium

Bayou Sara

Central Mississippi

Low

Big Black River

Central Mississippi

Low

Clark Creek

Central Mississippi

Low

Lower Buffalo River

Central Mississippi

Low

Tallahaga/Noxapater Creeks

Central Mississippi

Low

Tangipohoa River

Central Mississippi

Low

Thompson Creek

Central Mississippi

Low

Upper Yockanookany

Central Mississippi

Low

Buttahatchee River

Northeast Mississippi

High

Hatchie River

Northeast Mississippi

High

Luxapalila/Yellow Creeks

Northeast Mississippi

High

Bull Mountain Creek

Northeast Mississippi

Medium

Noxubee River

Northeast Mississippi

Medium

Sucarnoochee River

Northeast Mississippi

Medium

Upper Wolf River

Northeast Mississippi

Medium

East Fork Tombigbee River

Northeast Mississippi

Low

Pickwick Lake

Northeast Mississippi

Low

Bay St. Louis

South Mississippi

High

Lower Pearl River

South Mississippi

High

Pascagoula River

South Mississippi

High

Tchoutacabouffa River

South Mississippi

Medium

Big Sunflower River

Yazoo Basin

High

Lower Yazoo River

Yazoo Basin

High

Indian Bayou

Yazoo Basin

Medium

Chewalla Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Hurricane Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Jenkin's Lake

Yazoo Basin

Low

Little Tallahatchie River

Yazoo Basin

Low

Otoucalofa Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Piney Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Puskus Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Taylor Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Toby Tubby Creek

Yazoo Basin

Low

Upper Yalobusha River/Shutispear

Yazoo Basin

Low

Page 7

160 Miles

Central MS Conservation Program

Northeast MS Conservation Program

Yazoo Basin Conservation Program

South MS Conservation Program

Lakes

Major Rivers

Freshwater Conservation Areas

Figure 2. Map of Freshwater Conservation Areas Identified for Mississippi

Page 8

Figure 3. Map of High Priority Freshwater Conservation Areas Identified for Mississippi

160 Miles

Bay St. Louis

Pascagoula River

Lower Pearl River

South MS Conservation Program

Hatchie River

Buttahatchee River

Luxapalila/Yellow Creeks

Northeast MS Conservation Program

Big Sunflower River

Lower Yazoo River

Yazoo Basin Conservation Program

Upper Amite River

Rodney Lake

Bayou Pierre

Central MS Conservation Program

Strong River

Major Rivers

Lakes

Page 9

The second step in the CAP process is to evaluate the compiled data and information to identify

conservation targets, and threats to those targets, with threats being defined as stresses and

sources of stress to the targets. Conservation targets include species that are imperiled,

endangered or of special concern, biological communities that are groupings of co-occurring

significant species, and ecological systems that are assemblages of communities occurring

together on the landscape and are linked by common environmental processes, regimes, or

gradients. Stresses are factors that may potentially degrade or negatively impact the targets

within the next ten years. Stresses may be those factors that directly impact the target or those

that indirectly impact the target by affecting important ecological processes that influence the

target. Examples of stresses include habitat disturbance, sedimentation, reduction of

connectivity, organic enrichment and nutrient enrichment. Sources of stress are anthropogenic

practices that are incompatible and result in the stress to the targets. Sources of stress include

active sources as well as historical sources. Examples of sources of stress include: incompatible

urban development, incompatible grazing practices, incompatible forestry practices, alteration of

channel morphology and/or hydrologic regime, and point source pollution discharges.

The third step in the CAP process is to develop strategies to abate the threats to the conservation

targets and to develop measures to evaluate the success of the conservation strategies. Strategies

that are identified are also ranked according to their benefits, feasibility and cost of

implementation. Following are some examples of strategies that have been used by TNC:

¬ Land Acquisition

¬ Conservation Easements

¬ Develop/Promote Watershed

Management Plans

¬ Provide Land Management Assistance

¬ Influence Public Policy/Planning

¬ Establish Water Management

Agreements

¬ Support/Promote Compatible

Development

¬ Support/Promote Sustainable Forestry

¬ Provide Wetland/Stream Mitigation

¬ Develop Regional Conservation

Alliances

¬ Support/Promote and Implement Best

Management Practices

The fourth step in the CAP process is to identify measures of success. Measuring the success of

conservation strategies can be difficult and expensive, and may involve establishing monitoring

programs. Ultimate success may take many years; therefore, surrogate measures of intermediate

success or milestones are also used. To evaluate the success of conservation strategies, one may

measure the condition of the conservation target, the persistence of the threats, or the progress of

the strategy. In addition, one may employ the use of surrogate measures of overall ecological

integrity of the system of which the target is a part. Following are examples of measures of

success that have been used by TNC:

¬ Target specific measures: population status and trends, species surveys

¬ Ecological System measures: using Indices of Biological Integrity as indicators of community

health, geomorphic status indicators, and habitat quality indicators

¬ Threat abatement measures: BMPs, miles of riparian buffer, sediment loads

Page 10

Step 3. Implement the Conservation Area Plan

This is the natural next step upon completion of the CAP. Strategy implementation occurs based

on the ranking of strategies, as outlined in the CAP, and available funding and resources.

Strategy implementation is enhanced by the use of partnerships with other agencies and groups

committed to the same mission and goals. In addition, TNC’s experience indicates that long-

term ecosystem conservation will succeed only with strong support from the people who live and

work in these places. Therefore, TNC strives to build strong community support during the

implementation phase of the process.

Step 4. Perform Measures of Success to evaluate the progress of implementation

The Nature Conservancy has defined conservation success as making substantial progress

towards the long-term abatement of critical threats and the sustained maintenance or

enhancement of biodiversity health at conservation areas. The two core measures of success

involve measuring biodiversity health and threat status and abatement. There is often a lag-time

between implementation of threat abatement strategies and abatement of the threat, and an even

longer lag-time between strategy implementation and showing changes in biodiversity health.

Therefore, TNC has developed a set of short-term indicators that reflect our capacity to

implement effective strategies and enhance or maintain the conservation targets.

Status of Conservation Efforts at Mississippi’s Highest Priority Freshwater Conservation

Areas

The MS Chapter of TNC has been actively engaged in conservation efforts in the Pascagoula

watershed long before a state chapter even existed. Subsequently, we have been most successful

through Conservation by Design in this conservation area. To date we have completed the first

iteration of the CAP for the Pascagoula watershed and are actively engaged in strategy

implementation. We are also continuing to refine the conservation targets, threats and strategies.

With the recent addition of a Program Director for the Northeast Mississippi Conservation

Program, we have initiated freshwater conservation efforts in the Luxapalila and Buttahatchee

River conservation areas. For these areas and the other high priority conservation areas, we are

in the beginning stages of data and information gathering, CAP development and strategy

implementation.

Example of Conservation Efforts in the Pascagoula Watershed

The Pascagoula River is the largest river with an unimpeded main stem channel in the lower 48

states and represents one of the finest natural areas remaining in Mississippi (Figure 4). It

contains a long, mostly contiguous block of bottomland hardwood forest and coastal marsh. The

Pascagoula River and the Ward Bayou Wildlife Management Areas (over 50,000 acres of

conservation land) include about fifty miles of frontage along the Pascagoula River that consists

Page 11

Figure 4. Pascagoula River Watershed

of sandbars, low ridges, high flats, low flats and over fifty oxbow lakes. The Coastal Preserve

System includes over 11,000 acres in the Pascagoula and Escatawpa marshes, of which TNC has

bought or protected 4,500 acres. The Nature Conservancy has been actively engaged with

conservation on the Pascagoula beginning with the original state acquisitions in the early 1970s.

In 1999 a 3300-acre preserve at the confluence of the Leaf and Chickasawhay Rivers was

purchased and dedicated in honor of Charles Deaton. In 2002, a 1700-acre preserve adjacent to

the Deaton preserve was purchased and dedicated in honor of Herman Murrah.

Through the development of the first iteration of a CAP for the Pascagoula River the following

conservation targets have been identified:

¬ Resident Riverine Aquatic Alliance

¬ Anadromous Fish

¬ Emergent Marsh Complex

¬ Seagrass Beds

¬ Bottomland Hardwood Forest Complex

¬ Swallow tailed Kite

¬ Longleaf Sandhill Matrix

While about fifty miles of the river corridor is already protected by the State or by The Nature

Page 12

Conservancy, several high threats to conservation targets exist and require immediate action.

The following threats have been identified for the Pascagoula River during the development of

the CAP:

¬ Sedimentation

¬ Alteration to Hydrologic Regime

¬ Land Conversion and Forest

Fragmentation

¬ Point Source Pollution

¬ Exotic Invasive Species

¬ Alteration of Fire Regimes

The MS Chapter of TNC has identified and engaged in several strategies to abate critical threats

facing the Pascagoula River Watershed. Some of the higher priority strategies include:

¬ Collaborate with MDEQ’s Basin Management Approach

¬ Establish and Support a Pascagoula River Basin Alliance

¬ Acquire Lands Along the Pascagoula River and its Major Tributaries

¬ Form a South MS Prescribed Fire Council

¬ Further the Scientific Knowledge and Understanding of the Pascagoula Watershed

Water withdrawal projects and proposed reservoirs require The Nature Conservancy to engage

with community-based strategies and to acquire hydrologic expertise in order to abate these

threats. In addition, there is a need to work with industry, particularly the shipbuilding industry,

to diminish toxins in the river. Education and compatible economic development are

community-based strategies that can affect best practices by industry.

One issue of important concern, that will require a creative strategy is the increase in the amount

of sediment entering streams and rivers in the Pascagoula, as well as the issue of in-stream

sedimentation caused by scouring of the bed and bank erosion. The building of roads at an

unprecedented rate creates sedimentation concerns as well as interrupting hydrologic flow.

Incompatible silviculture practices are also a major source of sedimentation. Gravel mining,

sedimentation and alterations to hydrologic regime are major threats to the migration and

spawning habits of Gulf Sturgeon, Pearl Darter and Alabama Shad.

By following through with implementation of identified strategies, the MS Chapter of TNC is

involved in several projects in the Pascagoula Watershed.

A Coastal Impact Assistance Program (CIAP) funded collaboration between TNC, MDEQ,

Jackson County and George County has led to the Upper Pascagoula Connector Project. In

addition, the MS Chapter of TNC has initiated a Lower Pascagoula Connector Project. The goal

of these projects is to connect the eastern riverfront side of the Upper Pascagoula with the Deaton

Preserve, to connect the western side of the Upper Pascagoula protected lands with the Desoto

National Forest and to connect the lower portion of the Pascagoula Protected Lands with the

Coastal Preserves (Figure 5).

Page 13

Figure 5. The Upper and Lower Pascagoula Connector Projects

Page 14

Another CIAP funded collaboration between TNC, MDEQ, Jackson and George Counties, the

Coastal Preserves and Audubon MS has led to the Pascagoula River Ecotourism Study. This

study will hopefully provide sound data and information to foster the utilization of ecotourism as

a successful strategy that will promote environmental protection and restoration, while at the

same time, provide a boost to the economy of the area.

Collaboration between TNC, George County Economic Development Foundation, the Lucedale

Garden Club and Audubon MS has led to the holding of an annual Migration Discovery Day in

George County, MS. This is another example of where TNC and its partners hope to build

positive awareness of the ecological significance of this area by engaging the public in positive

interaction with the ecosystem.

A Nature Trail and Observatory are being developed along the Escatawpa River in Jackson

County, MS. The nature trail and observatory will be located in the Grand Bay Wildlife Refuge,

at the Mississippi Welcome Center on Interstate 10. The objective of this project is to capitalize

on the heavy traffic along this major interstate to attract visitors to view the beautiful and pristine

ecosystem of this area to hopefully promote awareness of the significance of the Escatawpa River

and its surrounding landscape.

Finally, TNC is partnered with the Pat Harrison Waterway District, U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers and the U.S. Geological Survey to conduct a geomorphic assessment of the Pascagoula

River System. Dr. Joann Mossa, from the Department of Geology at the University of Florida is

conducting the study for the purposes of gaining an understanding of the current geomorphic

state of the Pascagoula River and to understand the causes and effects of accelerated erosion

within the watershed. The results of this study will facilitate a better understanding of the

physical and hydrological characteristics of the Pascagoula River so that better and more sound

assessments can be made regarding the threats to the system and appropriate strategies can be

developed. In addition, these results will provide sound scientific data for decision and policy

makers and will hopefully help guide decisions regarding the future uses of the resources and the

management of the Pascagoula River Watershed.

Summary

The southeastern United States contains a rich diversity of freshwater species, communities and

ecosystems. In particular, Mississippi contains a rich diversity of aquatic plants and animals

throughout its many watersheds. Certain incompatible human uses of Mississippi's natural resources

pose threats to this natural heritage, resulting in an increasing need for efforts to protect water

quality, quantity and biodiversity within the State. Limited resources, however, require these efforts

be carefully planned and focused to increase the probability of successful conservation and thus have

a positive impact on aquatic natural resources. Through a process called Conservation by Design,

freshwater conservation areas of biodiversity significance have been identified and prioritized and

the development of plans to conserve and or protect these areas is underway. The next steps for MS

TNC will be to implement these conservation plans, measure the success of conservation efforts and

continue to revise the conservation plans as data and information become available. Key factors in

the success of the conservation of Mississippi’s freshwaters are to engage the community in

Page 15

conservation planning and the implementation of conservation strategies, to educate the citizens and

policy makers of the State as to the importance and significance of freshwater biodiversity and

conservation, to form partnerships with private, public and non-profit organizations to complement

and enable resources to achieve common objectives, to use scientific data as the foundation of

conservation planning and to identify and secure adequate funding for conservation activities.

References

Ehrlich, P., and A. Ehrlich. 1981. Extinction: The causes and consequences of disappearance of

species. New York: Random House.

Hobbs, H. H. III. 1992. Caves and springs. In: Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States,

Aquatic Communities. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: 59-131

Master, L.L., S.R. Flack, and B.A. Stein, eds. 1998. Rivers of life: Critical watersheds for

protecting freshwater biodiversity. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, VA.

McNeely, J. A., K. R. Miller, W. V. Reid, R. A. Mittermeier, and T. B. Werner. 1990.

Conserving the world's biological diversity. Gland, Switzerland: International Union for the

Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources and Washington, D.C.: World Resources

Institute, Conservation International, World Wildlife Fund-US, and the World Bank.

Myers, N. 1992. The primary source: Tropical forests and our future. New York: Norton.

Neves, R.J., A.E. Bogan, J.D. Williams, S.A. Ahlstedt, and P.W. Hartfield. 1997. Status of

aquatic mollusks in the Southeastern United States: a downward spiral of diversity. in

Aquatic Fauna in Peril: The Southeastern Perspective. Benz, G.W., and D.E. Collins, eds.

Special Publication 1, Southeast Aquatic Research Institute, Lenz Design &

Communications, Decatur, GA.

Norton, B. 1988. Commodity, amenity, and morality: The limits of quantification of valuing

biodiversity. Chapter 22 in Biodiversity, ed. E. O. Wilson. Washington, D.C.: National

Academy Press.

Pimental, D., C. Wilson, C. McCullom, R. Huang, P. Dwen, J. Flack, Q. Tran, T. Saltman, and

B. Cliff. 1997. Economic and environmental benefits of biodiversity. Bioscience 7.

Plotkin, M. 1988. The outlook for new agricultural and industrial products from the tropics:

Natural pesticides. In Biodiversity, ed. E.O. Wilson, 111-12. Washington, D.C.: National

Academy Press.

Warren, M. L., Jr., B.M. Burr, S.J. Walsh, H.L. Bart, Jr., R.C. Cashner, D.A. Etnier, B.J.

Freeman, B.R. Kuhajda, R.L. Mayden, H.W. Robison, S.T. Ross, and W.C. Starnes. 2000.

Diversity, distribution, and conservation status of the native freshwater fishes of the southern

United States. Fisheries 25(10): 7-31.

Page 16

Wilson, E.O. 1992. The diversity of life. Harvard Univ. Press, Cambridge, Mass., 424pp.

Return to Eco380